Cooking Green Beans with Salt Essay

Introduction An experiment was conducted where two sets of green beans where cooked. One set had salt and the other one didn’t. One person who did not know which set of green beans had salt and which one didn’t got to taste and judge both of the sets on taste, texture and color. Chef Heston Blumenthal once asked ‘Why do cooks add salt (sodium chloride) when cooking vegetables, for example green beans? ’ Other chefs answered with these possible answers: * | * It keeps the beans green| * | * It raises the boiling point of water so the beans cook faster| * | * It prevents the beans going soggy|. * | * It improves the flavor. However, a scientist also replied saying these statements were untrue because: * | * Only the acidity and calcium content of the water affect the color of the beans| * | * Adding salt increases the boiling point of water but by such a small amount that it will make no difference to cooking times| * | * Vegetables will go soggy if cooked for too long whether salt is added or not| * | * Little salt is actually absorbed onto the surface of a bean during cooking – typically 1/10 000 g of salt per bean which is too little to be tasted by most people. The aim to this experiment was to prove or disprove these points. Materials:Listed below are the materials used for this experiment: * One bag of green beans containing about 250g * Two pans * Two bowls * One stopwatch * One strainer * A cutting board * A knife * A thermometer * SaltProcedure:First, the bag of green beans were washed and cut up. Then, they were evenly divided into two bowls; bowl A and bowl B. Bowl A had no salt in it and was then put into a pan and observed. The time it took to reach its boiling point and the temperature at boiling point were then noted. After that, the beans were places into a strainer and dried. This was also done with bowl B, except salt was added. DataAfter conducting the experiment, this is the data that was obtained:| | | | | With salt| Without salt| Taste| Tasteful| Dull, boring| Texture| Soft| Crunchy| Flavor| -| -|. As you can see, the only thing that didn’t change about the beans with salt was the flavor, which stayed the same for both experiments. Conclusion: Clearly, after this experiment, we proved the chefs right. Both the texture and taste where better with the salty beans. Some of the limitations where that we only tried this experiment once, therefore it is not 100% correct. We could have also had more people testing it, instead of just one person because there are some factors that could influence the opinion.

Banana Peel Whitening Essay

Еhe high amounts of potassium, magnesium, and manganese in the ripe banana can be applied to the teeth to remove stains and whiten them. Below are the steps we suggest if you want to use this folksy, homemade, and proven method: 1. Get a banana that is just ripe (it may still have trace amounts of green at each end, but not too much). Using a banana at this level of ripeness ensures that the peel contains optimal levels of potassium (which is the substance that really brightens the teeth); 2. Open the banana like a monkey does by peeling it from the bottom end and upward. Not only does this prevent all of those strange banana â€Å"threads† from appearing, but it also lets you have more control over the peel; 3. Take a small piece of the inside of the peel (you can use kitchen shears to cut off a manageable square) and begin gently rubbing this along your teeth; 4. Keep the application going for two minutes and be sure you are covering each of the teeth as much as possible with the material inside of the peel; 5. As you rub and pass the time, the minerals will be absorbed into the teeth and begin to promote the whitening. 6. Brush with your preferred toothpaste, rinse, and smile with your brighter and whiter teeth! Be aware that both bananas and strawberries have lots of natural sugar, so apply only once per day or even just once per week to be safe.

A Brief Overview of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

The trans-Atlantic slave trade was the largest long-distance coerced movement of people in history and, prior to the mid-nineteenth century, formed the major demographic well-spring for the re-peopling of the Americas following the collapse of the Meridian population. Cumulatively, as late as 1820, nearly four Africans had crossed the Atlantic for every European, and, given the differences in the sex ratios between European and African migrant streams, about four out of every five females that traversed the Atlantic were from Africa.From the late fifteenth century, the Atlantic Ocean, once a formidable barrier that prevented regular interaction between those peoples inhabiting the four continents it touched, became a commercial highway that integrated the histories Of Africa, Europe, and the Americas for the first time. As the above figures suggest, slavery and the slave trade were the linchpins of this process.With the decline of the Meridian population, labor from Africa formed the basis of the exploitation of the gold and agricultural resources of the export sectors of the Americas, with sugar laminations absorbing well over two thirds of slaves carried across the Atlantic by the major European and Euro-American powers. For several centuries slaves were the most important reason for contact between Europeans and Africans.What can explain this extraordinary migration, organized initially on a continent where the institution of slavery had declined or totally disappeared in the centuries prior to Columbian contact, and where, even when it had existed, slavery had never been confined to one group of people? To pose the question differently, why slavery, and why were the slaves carried across the Atlantic exclusively African? The short answer to the first of these two questions is that European expansion to the Americas was to mainly tropical and semi-tropical areas.Several products that were either unknown to Europeans (like tobacco), or occupied a luxury niche in pre-expansion European tastes (like gold or sugar), now fell within the capacity of Europeans to produce more abundantly. But while Europeans could control the production of such exotic goods, it became apparent in the first two centuries af ter Columbian contact that they chose not to supply the labor that would make such output possible.Free European migrants and indentured servants never traveled across the Atlantic in sufficient numbers to meet the labor needs of expanding plantations. Convicts and prisoners the only Europeans who were ever forced to migrate were much fewer in numbers again. Slavery or some form of coerced labor was the only possible option if European consumers were to gain access to more tropical produce and precious metals.

Corporate Culture and Performance Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Corporate Culture and Performance - Assignment Example The present paper has identified that values also control how the different stakeholders of a company interact with each other and how they think and feel about the problems of each other as well as of the entire organization. Culture is variable and can change as per the wishes of its managers or key members. The organization in which I have previously worked is â€Å"ACME† its organizational structure is based on the vertical functional approach. Hence proving that people in departments are grouped according to their skills, expertise and resource use. This is the most basic form of organizational structure which works for the company and helps them achieve greater efficiency through economies of scale. â€Å"ACME† has a tall structure and comparatively a narrow span of control which means that the overall management has been spread along the same level. It has five major departments. 1. Human capital 2. Production 3. Industrial relations 4. Sales and marketing 5. Fin ance and accounting Human capital department are basically responsible for hiring capable workers who match the kind of work profile required. It also deals with providing the employees the benefits, perks, and privileges so that they remain satisfied with the company and remain loyal to it. it also makes an effort to train employees so that they fit the criteria of the newly developing procedures in the company. The human capital department also puts forward the amount of pay and financial resources to be spent on training and so on to the finance department which is then approved by them. The production department is responsible for the overall production of the product. Because ACME is a multinational company, the production facilities are distributed amongst various countries so as to cut the costs. Bottles are usually manufactured in Singapore and delivered across the globe. There are a total of 8 plants in different parts of the country. They are located comparatively close to the major markets like and the central hubs so as to reduce the transportation costs. The industrial relations department is responsible for handling the problems related to the employees. As such problems in the country can have a major impact on the overall production of the company. This includes the problems to deal with labor unions, strikes, and wage issues. Basically, it deals with the problems related to industry so that the production process runs smoothly and more efficiently. The sales and marketing department deals with making the product available in the market and letting people know about it through advertising. It also deals with promotional deals, price cut offers and analyzing the competition from the competitors in the market and responding accordingly. The department also is responsible for making the product or ads culturally sensitive so as to fit in the environment of the country. For example, reducing the price during the festivities season so that its avail able to more people and hence increase sales. The finance and accounting department deals with actual pricing of the product and also on the working out of the cost of production.  

Theories and ideologies #3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Theories and ideologies #3 - Essay Example The changes in both Marxism and anarchism are aimed to better the society if adopted. Capitalism has for long been the evil wheel spinning the society and has resulted to production of immense inequality both politically and socially. Capitalism leads to an economic mode of production that sees the rich continue becoming richer and the poor become poorer. The leaders of capitalism pay low wages to the laborers just enough to keep them alive but not to engage in other profit making activities that can compete with them. Meanwhile, they continue making a lot of profit and expanding their own economic empires. With economic power comes political power and hence the rich also hold and control the political power. Communism brings equality to all both economically, socially and politically. Everyone has what is necessary and even the surplus is subdivided among the people. Political power is equally shared and controlled by the people. Social classification is unknown in this society and the common theme is communal ownership hence peace prevails1. A society without individual ownership or a singular form of leadership is the ideal society. People are at liberty to own join property and be in control of the organizations and authority. There is no government to coerce people and neither is their political governance to control the people2. Humanity is at liberty to exercise their rights and aid each other as they wish. Social inequality is unknown as every property possible is shared among the people and no one owns anything. Without personal property, leadership and authority, peace prevails among the people as there is no cause for conflict. Social and economic issues are handled by the whole community in general and hence no place for political ideologies. Workers are in control of the industries and each industry is an independent entity meaning no one has control over it as an individual but rather it is a community property

Moda Textile Factory - Kyrgyzstan Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Moda Textile Factory - Kyrgyzstan - Case Study Example They can also seek help from international agencies through their website and through networking sites like facebook and Youtube. Both these platforms can be effective for finding the type of business partners that they are looking for. Sergei and Olga should not abandon their dream of producing fashionable cashmere coats in their factory. Internet has emerged has very effective medium for entrepreneurs, big and small businessmen and people at large who want to expand their business across the globe. As Sergei has realized the potential of computer and internet, creating a webpage of their firm would hugely help their business. They can also develop design catalogue of their trendy ladies garments, including winter collection, showcasing fashionable ladies cashmere coats. It would be cost effective as against the printing of the same. This would help to expose their designs to larger client base, reaching across the continents. The social networking sites are also powerful medium for developing business contacts and customers. (words:

Dq3.1-Terence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Dq3.1-Terence - Essay Example Developing knowledge workers is a complicated and imperative focus field for any company that desires to perform well and remain knowledge driven. The essay presents a discussion of major milestones for developing successful and knowledgeable workers. A performing organization perceives knowledge leadership training as a crucial aspect of being a competitive knowledge enabled firm not only at the stage of leadership, but throughout the entire company (Yap & Webber, 2015). For instance, in Acquisition Solutions, the most important factor is to provide knowledge management chances. The company should identify and develop mentors, champions, and managers through recognition and creation of an evolving set of characters for identification of knowledge leaders. Another factor is to provide resources and support for knowledge workers. This occurs through a centrally accessible learning center. It is imperative to reward knowledge workers and measure efficiency of the workers. Rewarding knowledge workers function as a form of extrinsic motivation for them to remain productive in their respective sections. Knowledge management refers to the process of taking, dispensing, and efficiently utilizing knowledge (Lindner & Wald, 2011). In a broader sense, the field promotes an inclusive approach to identification, capture, assessment, retrieval, and dissemination of all the company’s information assets (Rasula, Bosilj & Indihar, 2012). Examples of knowledge management may include databases, documents, laws, processes, and initially un-captured skill and experience in particular employees. Knowledge management enhances competencies and innovation among employees (Lopez-Nicolas & Merono-Cerdan, 2011). Knowledge management encompasses lessons learned that tries to capture and unveil information operationally acquired. It also promotes organizational culture (Zheng, Yang & McLean, 2010). When implementing knowledge

American Idea Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

American Idea - Essay Example This disposable culture is the latest and greatest American contribution to history. But it is also true that it does not provide any alternative form of storage. This has led to a lot of instability. Consider finding a library under the earth due to some natural calamity, we could still have access to the books once the repairs are done but what would be the state of the computer related memory storage systems such as memory sticks,CDs etc.We will have absolutely no access to these regardless of how much storage space they hold. If any one has committed any wrong act, the person is punished. And hence there is justice for all. But in spite of this rule, there have been so many loop holes and there have been instances where evil minded people, smugglers and other criminals who get away with their wrong doings. Independence/freedom is the core value which is given most importance in this world. Everyone wants freedom and independence which is good and will definitely boost up ones positive attitude. But this freedom is also misused in several ways. Children who are so young become victims to so many criminal activities such as taking drugs, becoming alcoholics or chain smokers which are very harmful to health all just because they have the freedom to do what they want. It fosters an excessive individualism, an unfettered reliance on markets, and an unrelenting distrust of government - each of which impedes our capacity to address urgent societal problems. We adapt to change while remaining anchored to core values. Change is inevitable and people believe it only because of adapting to change we have grown so far. And America leads the way here as well.Globalization, terrorism, resource scarcity, consumerism and technological advances are among the forces that test economical and political institutions and our values. An information free-for-all makes it hard to discover truth and distinguish between the significant and the trivial. And hence a bunch of fighters arise over a bunch of people who should fell like one big family and work towards destroying the world rather than creating harmony. The biggest challenge facing the American idea is how to anchor enduring values in this time of rapid and discordant change. Religious and cultural norms of a simpler past seem unable to secure shared values in the complex present. Future: It is certainly very difficult to find a place characterized by justice and freedom, but if the future has to be better than what it's been all this while, America must be the role model for the rest of the world. As regards moral leadership, America stands first in helping and leading her own country and also some of the other suffering countries. This idea may not be true in every sense but we must strive towards the achievement of the same as it is the only hope for freedom in the world which every human being strives for at the end of the day. America means development, liberty, justice and equal opportunity for all. And hence this idea of America should be

International Law. Midterm Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

International Law. Midterm - Assignment Example International protocol, agreement, pact, exchange of letters, convention or covenant are all synonyms for treaties (Alvarez, 2005). Therefore, all these types of agreements are considered to be treaties under international law. Thus, the rules applied to treaties are the same ones applied to these terminologies. On its basic form, a treaty is the same as a contract: willing parties have voluntarily assumed duties and obligations between or among themselves (Klabbers 87). Consequently, under international law, a party which does not oblige to the agreements is held liable. The subject coverage of treaties in recent times has expanded considerably (Milner 342). This is in line with the need for international promotion and protection of concepts such as education, human rights, environment, the global heritage and wildlife (Moore, Gerald K & Witold Tymowski, 2005). Additionally, treaties have been necessitated by the emergence of global security concerns such as terrorism. The UK Swiss confederation taxation cooperation agreement is a treaty between the United Kingdom and Switzerland. The agreement came into force on January 2013. The agreement clarified the relationship between Switzerland and the EUSA (EU savings agreement).The second treaty is the 1979 Egypt Israeli peace treaty. This agreement implied that the two nations agreed to recognize each other. As such, the treaty required the state of Israel to withdraw or remove its army from Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula. As a result, Egypt would allow Israel ships to pass through the Suez Canal. Lastly , the 2014 convention on the manipulation of sports competitions is among the latest treaties or agreements. The convention advocated by the council of Europe is aimed at fighting instances of match fixing in the world’s sports. Since treaties are non-permanent binding agreements, sovereign nations or international organizations can

Current Trend in Management Essay Example for Free

Current Trend in Management Essay The management should recognize the important role of human resources management in order to successfully guide organizations towards profitability. It is essential for the management of investment and time-consuming and the amount, to see change scenario for the human resources department in the 21st century. In order to stay competitive and be in the race, and human resources management should consciously update itself with a shift in human resources, and be aware of the human resources issues cropping up. With high attrition rates and poaching strategies of competitors, and there is a huge shortage of skilled staff, and therefore, the company human resources activities play a vital role in combating the crisis. Should be put in the appropriate human resource policies that would lead to the organization as well as the individual s goals. And human resource managers to manage all the challenges facing staff recruitment, training them, and then develop strategies to retain their career and build an effective management system for them. That just taking care of employees will not be enough; new initiatives for human resources should also focus on the quality and productivity needs, and direct clients and stress, teamwork and leadership building. This book is divided into two parts, which sheds light on the emerging trends in human resources, and discusses the issues of human resources in various industries such as financial services, information technology, energy and health care, for example a few. It should be the value of this book is to practice human resource managers in each institution, as well as for those who have a great interest in the field of human resources management, to realize the increasing importance of human resources and understand the need to build human resources effective strategies to combat human resources issues emerging in the 21st century. Has evolved Human Resource Management Introduction to a large extent over the past century, and has seen a major shift in form and function primarily during the past two decades. Led a number of large forces environmental internal and external, progress has been made in the management of human resources function maintenance to a large extent, with little if any impact down the line, why many scholars and practitioners regard today as a source of competitive advantage for sustainable organizations operating in the global economy. Changes in human resources management: some significant changes that are likely to take place in the management of human resources are as follows: An increase in the levels of education: Due to the technological progress and the spread of educational institutions, workers will become increasingly aware of the needs of a higher level, managers must develop appropriate policies and techniques to motivate knowledge workers. Better-educated workforce and greater demand management assessment and self-governance in the workplace. Technological developments: This will require re-training and vocational training in the middle of each of the workers and managers. The rise of an international company to prove new challenges for individuals and function. Change the composition of the labor force: In women, in the future, minorities, SCs and STs become an important source of manpower in the future at the expense of ease of access to better education and employment opportunities. Therefore workforce planning will from each organization to take into account the possibility of the availability of talent in these groups. And will change the mix of the workforce leads to new values ​​in organizations. Increase the role of government: In India and management, personnel have become so certified. Will be required in private institutions in the future will be to coordinate its programs with those welfare work in the government sector, especially the increasingly to support the governments efforts to improve public health and education, training and development and infrastructure. Occupational Health and Safety: Because of the existence of the legislative and the trade union movement, and management personnel should be more health and safety conscious in the future. OD: in the future, and will have started to change and able to improve organizational effectiveness. And senior management will become more actively involved in the development of human resources. New work ethic: more troops will be on the forms of the project and a team of the organization. And change the work ethic requires a greater focus on the individual. You will have to redesign jobs to make the appeal. Development planning: Will be involved personnel management are increasingly in organizational planning, structure, and composition etc.. This will require greater awareness in terms of cost and profit based on attitudes on the part of the Department of Personnel. Better evaluation and reward systems: There will be a need to post the highest gains patrol organizations with the goal and the result more workers compensation-oriented systems performance and linking performance evaluation will have to be developed. New personnel policies: This will require the adoption of new and better policies for the labor force in the future. The traditional family management to give way to professional management with greater forces on human dignity. Hence, it will be in personnel management in the future cope with new challenges and new responsibilities performance. And will take place participatory leadership authoritarian leadership. And creative skills must be redone and rewarded the focus will shift from a legally binding approach and rule to a more open and humane. Recent trends in human resources Human Resource Management is the process of bringing people and organizations together so as to achieve the objectives of each other. The role of Director of Human Resources continues to shift from the role of protector and sort of the role of planning and agent of change. Management personnel are the new heroes of companies. The name of the game today in business is individuals. At present it is not possible to show good report your financial or operating only personnel relations are in order. Over the years, a high degree of skill and knowledge based on increasing employment opportunities while jobs that require low skills are diminishing. This calls for the appointment of skill in the future through human resource management initiatives occasion. Indian organizations have also experienced a change in systems and cultures and management philosophy due to the global alignment of Indian organizations. There is a need to develop multiple skills. The role of human resource management is becoming more important.

David Cameron Economic Policies Economics Essay

David Cameron Economic Policies Economics Essay In 2008, the British economy was facing recession. The manufacturing and construction sector were experiencing a slump in to their profitability, while the service sector was not growing. David Cameron took over as the Prime Minister of Britain, in the year 2010. The Prime minister introduced the deficit -reduction strategy as his main policy of improving the British economy (Faulconbridge and Matt, 2). The economy reacted passively, with a minimal increase of its GDP, which stood at 1.1%. In 2011, the economy did not peak, though there was a reduction in the governments budget deficit, due to the austerity measures of David Cameron government. In 2012, the British economy experienced a slump in growth. The nations budget deficit grew to 11%. The GDP of the country fell by a margin of 0.7% in the year 2012. This is attributed to the amount of money the government spent in hosting the Olympics. However, David Cameron defended the move arguing that the construction will give the country an approximate amount of 13 billion pounds, over the next ten years. This paper analyzes the David Cameron policies on economic development in Britain. It analyzes the results of these policies, and the public reaction to the policies. It draws a conclusion on whether David Cameron is enacting the right policies that are beneficial to the British, over a long period of time. The Cameron government has enacted policies of dealing with budget deficits, and government debts. In the financial year of 2010/2011, the Conservative government introduced an emergency budget that was aimed at reducing the structural deficits of the countrys budget. The government agreed to reduce its spending to about 6 billion pounds. This policy by the Cameron government is referred to as austerity policy. Austerity policy refers to measures a government takes in order to reduce its deficit, and they are in the form of reducing government spending. The government does this by reducing the money in spends in providing services to its citizens (Faulconbridge and Matt, 2). This also includes the benefits it pays to its civil service, and other groups within the country. For instance, in 2010, Chancellor of Exchequer, George Osborne came up with a review of government spending. The Chancellor estimated a cut of an approximate value of 81 billion pounds over the next four years. This amounted to 19% of budget reduction in every department of the government. The government announced a seven billion pound reduction in welfare spending, and housing benefits. The government increased pension contribution of public sector employees, and a cut of 7% financial contributions to all local councils in England. The Office of the budget responsibility announced that these measures will lead to a loss of thousands of jobs. These austerity policies faced resistance in England. The labor party is the main critic of these policies by David Cameron, and it suggests an increase of taxation to the rich, for purposes of reducing the deficits (Faulconbridge and Matt, 6). However, the David Cameron government opposes this move, and suggests a cut in the welfare spending of the state. Cameron removed taxes that generate money which is used to provide local services, and reduce the amount of money Britons pay on rail fair. He faced criticism from the middle class people, but he justified this action by stating that it will prevent a cut in medical and school services. Due to the policies, the British economy is emerging out of recession. However, economists project a weak economy and uncertainty over its growth in the next coming years. The inflation rate is 2.7%, and therefore reduces the disposal income of the various households in Britain. However, this figure reduced by a margin of 2.5%, as compared to 2011. In 2011, inflation stood at 5.2%. In the corporate business environment, there are mixed results in terms of profitability (Faulconbridge and Matt, 6). For instance Halfords corporations, a bicycle manufacturer reported a drop of 23% of its revenues, while Arcadia, a clothing retail company posted a profit of 25%. The British government is of the opinion that the economy is stabilizing, despite these figures (Flanders, 4). Basing on this, David Cameron is right in initiating the deficit-reducing strategies. This is because moving away from the strategy and increasing government borrowing will result to recession in future, and increase government debts (Flanders, 3). Increased borrowing will make the make the British economy to the vulnerable to the Eurozone crises, leading to recession. It is therefore better to initiate policies that will improve the economy, even if the short term consequence is not beneficial. In the long run, the economy will generate jobs, and the government will have enough money to improve the welfare of its citizens.

Stephen Dedalus in James Joyces A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Ma

Stephen Dedalus in James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man When the soul of a man is born in this country there are nets flung at it to hold it back from flight. You talk to me of nationality, language, religion. I shall try to fly by those nets The spirit of Ireland is embodied in young Stephen Dedalus, the central character of James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Like the Dedalus of Greek myth, Stephen must grow wings so that he may fly above the tribulations of his life. As he matures, Dedalus begins to understand his position in life, and decides to rise above the turbulent Ireland of the early 1900s in a rebellion against society, a struggle against his beliefs and a struggle against his heritage. Joyce wrote A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in the decade preceding its first publication in 1916. The early 1900s was a turbulent time for Ireland, a time in which many groups and individuals were making pushes for an Independent Ireland. Joyce brings Irish politics in as a major theme for Stephen Dedalus to address. Stephen often Idolizes or admonishes different characters in Ireland's political landscape. Among these revolutionaries were the IRB (Irish Republican Brotherhood), Charles Steward Parnell, The revolutionaries of the 1916 Easter Rising and Sinn Fein. In the same year A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man was published, between 1000 and 1500 Irish patriots tried to capture the town of Dublin on Easter Day. The Easter Rising, as it was called, led to the death of approximately 1000 Irishmen and 500 Britons. Of the 1000 Irishmen, many were women and children, while of the 500 Britons; all were either soldiers or policemen. The Easter Rising was not a spontaneous ev... ...k, Rev. Timothy D. The Dedalus Factor: Einstein's Science and Joyce's Portrait of the Artist. The Modern World. 4 April 2002 http://www.themodernword.com/joyce/joyce_paper_clark.html The Early Years. Joyce and his time. 4 April 2002 http://web.nwe.ufl.edu/~kershner/bioa.html Fitzgibbon, Constantine. 1916 Easter Rising. 1916 The Rising. 4 April 2002 http://www.users.bigpond.com/kirwilli/1916/ James Joyce. Ultima actualizacion. 4 April 2002 http://www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~vfores/joyce.html Mythography. The Legend of Daedalus in Myth and Art. Mythography. 4 April 2002 http://www.loggia.com/myth/daedalus.html Niebuhr, Reinhold. The Serenity Prayer. Bread on the Waters. 21 April 2002 http://www.cptryon.org/prayer/special/serenity.html Timeline. James Joyce Resource center. 4 April 2002 http://english.ohio-state.edu/organizations/ijjf/jrc/jrctimel.htm

New Zealand :: essays research papers fc

NEW ZEALAND   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The country that I am doing for my report is New Zealand. New Zealand is made up of two Islands. The north and the south islands. It is located in the south pacific by Australia.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first people to settle New Zealand came over from east Polynesia by canoe during the 10th century. These people were called the Maori. According to a Maori legend, a man may have arrived in New Zealand during about 950 ad, but this can not be proven. The Maori people lived on the Island on native fruits and vegetables and animals, and they also brought over plants and livestock from Polynesia. The Maori were usually peaceful, but sometimes had wars over the best land. They lived in earth-made structures similar to the adobes of Mexico.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first European to sight New Zealand was Abel Tasman in 1642. The Maori people kept him from landing on the Islands. They attacked his ship by canoes and killed four of his sailors. He never returned to New Zealand. In 1769, an English explorer, Captain James Cook, was sent to New Zealand on a scientific investigation. He mapped all of the north and south Islands and made reports on trade and colonizing. These reports were good and attracted many people to New Zealand, including the French, Italian, and American explorers. By the 18th century, there were 180,000 Maori people on the north and south islands of New Zealand. During 1840, the treaty of Waitangi was signed between the British and the Maori people. It gave the British a right to colonize the Islands and trade with the Maori people. In 1907, the Islands were declared a dominion of Great Britain. In 1935, It was declared an independent country and was named New Zealand.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The present day government and standard of living in New Zealand is very much like that of the U.S. At one time the yearly income of New Zealanders was even better than the U.S. and Great Britain. The people of New Zealand have freedom of religion. The main religion in New Zealand is Christianity, even though there are Jehovah's Witnesses, Muslims, Amish, and many more. The Maori religion is also a major religion. The people of New Zealand have a mix between Britain and Australian accents.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main exports of New Zealand are wool and dairy products. There are over 100,000 sheep in New Zealand.

power and politics Essay -- essays research papers

Politics and Power Paper   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is not about â€Å"what you do†, â€Å"it is about who you are and who you know†. As employees, we have all heard sayings like this before when it comes to the business world. The â€Å"power and politic† mindset is a direct result of the type of tug of war experienced for millions of years; from prehistoric times through modern day. Ever since Ugha smashed Mugha in the head with a club back in prehistoric times, politics have been around in the workplace. Politics are a subliminal fight for survival and it actually happens in personal lives as much as it does in our work lives. Politics can go hand in hand with power, just as night follows the day. Many of the political situations that occur within a corporation are a result of growth and change. However, part of the task of becoming a viable asset to a corporation is to look beyond the surface and find out where the company is heading as a result of these changes. In this way, employees c an position themselves to be a positive part of the growth and change.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Power and politics go hand in hand in the business world today. The likelihood of gaining power often depends on the ability to read and understand politics. Once power is gained, leaders tend to utilize politics to reach long term goals and visions. Pending on the style of leadership, personal agendas may come into play. While personal agendas are not always a bad thing, they are generally set forth with limited perspective and can potentially result in catastrophe. Because personal agendas restrict the flow of communication and constructive criticism, personal agendas are a major contributor to the negative aspects of power. However, there is far more to be gained than lost with regard to power. Power provides a solid structure and a clear expectation. Since people strive to please, measurable guidelines offer a foundation for success. When power is used effectively, appropriate politics can be set into place to obtain a desired outcome.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Politics are meant to go unnoticed and usually lie beneath the surface. Recognizing politics is half the battle in learning to handle and deal with them. Once politics are recognized there is an opportunity to benefit personally and collectively. Politics can promote the â€Å"I’ll scratch you’re back if you scratch mi... ... has built its reputation on. (Schermerhorn, John R., Hunt, James G., Osborn, Richard N. Organizational Behavior, pgs 1-31).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What can you do to thrive in a political environment? There’s no magic formula, but common sense, fair play and sound judgment are good starting points. Work hard; absolutely. But instead of keeping your head down, keep your antenna up. Instead of keeping your nose clean and not getting involved in any of the politics, use it to sniff out information and opportunities. Instead of seeing power and politics as dirty words, put them to good use for yourself and others. One thing is for sure, power and politics will always survive in the business world, and it is imperative that we as employees find a way to use them to our advantage, because if we do not someone else will. As it is pointed out in one article, the great philosopher Plato once said â€Å"Those who are too smart to engage in politics are punished by being governed by those who are dumber† (Martinez, 2000). References Martinez, M. N. (2000). Politics Come With The Office. Information retrieved on   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  August 27, 2005 from www.graduatingengineer.com

Mortality Regimes And Longevity Risk Health And Social Care Essay

This paper explores the presence of governments in mortality kineticss and assesses their deductions for length of service hazard direction. Our attack extends the Poisson log bilinear arrested development developed by Brouhn et Al. by capturing the time-varying mortality constituent with a Markov regime-switching theoretical account. The theoretical account is so applied to Gallic mortality informations sets from 1947 to 2007. Our analysis reveals that one government is characterized by high volatility and is active during the 20 old ages after the Second World War. The 2nd government corresponds to a province of low volatility and captures length of service betterments observed during the recent period. A Monte Carlo simulation is so used to look into the impact of mortality governments for the hazard direction of life rente portfolios. Simulation reveals that the initial distribution of a mortality government affects well the solvency degree of portfolio and the capital demands, c orroborating the importance of taking into history mortality regimes for the direction of life rente portfolios. Keywords: Life rente, Mortality Projection, Regime-switching Models JEL Classification: C32, G22, G23 1. Introduction Life anticipation everyplace has increased well over the last century. In France, mortality has declined steeply, as older people live longer. Life anticipation at birth for males has passed from 45 old ages in 1900 to 81 old ages in 2000. This phenomenon is seen as good intelligence for persons and as a significant societal accomplishment. However, it poses new challenges for the policy shapers, private pension directors and other suppliers of life rentes, where the consequence of life anticipation betterments on the solvency of pension systems is a concern ( Macdonald et al. , 1998 ) . As underlined by Marocco and Pitacco ( 1998 ) , length of service hazard, that is, the uncertainness sing the future development of mortality and life anticipation results, affects the pricing and reserving of life rente merchandises well. Indeed, establishments supplying life rentes run the hazard that the existent value of projects exceeds their outlooks, taking to state of affairss of bankruptcy, when establishments can non pay the promised sum to endorsers. The computation of expected present values therefore requires an appropriate mortality projection that avoids underestimating future duties. In 1992, Lee and Carter proposed a simple theoretical account that specifies mortality rate alteration as a map of a individual clip index. The method describes the mortality rate as the amount of an age-specific constituent independent of clip and a bilinear term that is the merchandise of a time-varying parametric quantity vector stand foring the development of mortality over clip and an age-specific vector of parametric quantities reflecting how each age is impacted by the development of mortality. The estimation of the time-varying parametric quantity is so modeled and forecast as a stochastic time-series utilizing the Box-Jenkins method. The forecast mortality rate is so obtained by uniting the prognosis time-varying mortality constituent obtained by an ARIMA theoretical account, with the estimated parametric quantities relative to age effects. However, the usage of an ARIMA theoretical account to depict the behaviour of mortality over clip appears unrealistic. As Sweeting ( 2010 ) underscores, mortality nowadayss sudden alterations in tendencies, proposing the presence of a non-linear construction. Furthermore, the mortality procedure exhibits non-Gaussian belongingss such as fat dress suits, heteroscedasticity, and lopsidedness. In visible radiation of these facts, we propose to capture the time-varying mortality constituent obtained by a Poisson log bilinear theoretical account appraisal, with a Markov exchanging theoretical account. Markov exchanging theoretical accounts were introduced by Goldfeld and Quandt ( 1973 ) and became popular after the seminal paper of Hamilton ( 1989 ) . In finance and economic sciences, regime-switching theoretical accounts have received turning attending. They are capable of capturing complex non-linear kineticss, including sudden alterations in the behaviour of clip series, and complicated signifiers of heteroscedasticity, fat dress suits, and skews. They are notably used to capture the kineticss of GDP ( Hamilton, 1989 ) , plus monetary values ( Longin and Solnik, 2001 ) or involvement rates that exhibit non-Gaussian belongingss ( Ang and Bekaert, 1998 ) . Ang and Timmermann ( 2011 ) supply a good study of the assorted applications of Markov exchanging theoretical accounts in economic sciences and finance. In actuarial scientific disciplines, government shift has been largely focused on the pricing of fiscal merchandises ( Hardy, 2001 ; Bollen, 1998 ) . To our cognition, merely M ilidonis et Al. ( 2011 ) have explored the usage of Markov regime-switching theoretical accounts to capture mortality kineticss. They apply this type of theoretical account to US informations from 1921 to 2005 and demo that mortality is characterized by a two-regime shift theoretical account. However, their work brushs an obvious unfavorable judgment: the designation of mortality governments could be merely due to the presence of the two universe wars in their sample. In this paper, we explore the inquiry whether mortality governments are discernable in Gallic informations from 1947 to 2007. Using an information standard attack, we find that Gallic mortality is characterized by two distinguishable governments. One government refers to a strong uncertainness province, matching to length of service conditions observed during the decennary following the Second World War. The 2nd province is related to the low volatility of length of service betterments observed during the last 30 old ages. The cardinal invention of our paper is the probe of the influence of mortality governments on length of service hazard. Using Monte Carlo simulation, we derive a conditional distribution of prospective life tabular arraies, which are so used in order to mensurate the influence of mortality governments on life rente portfolio hazard. It appears that the active distribution of a mortality government affects well the projection of mortality, but besides the uncertainness that comes from this projection. That connexion is peculiarly of import for statisticians, who must find the sum of money required to pay pensions, every bit good as the safety lading used to cover the uncertainness relation to the betterment in life anticipation. The paper is organized as follow. Section 2 nowadayss notations, premises, and informations. Section 3 provides a elaborate presentation of the methodological analysis associating to mortality projection theoretical accounts. Section 4 presents the appraisal consequences. In subdivision 5, a cash-flow simulation of a portfolio of life rentes measures the chief deductions of a mortality government on length of service hazard and capital demands. Section 6 concludes the paper. 2. Notations, Assumptions, and Datas 2.1. Notation Mortality is studied in two dimensions: age, and calendar clip. We shall utilize so following notation: represents the staying life-time of an single elderly on January 1 of twelvemonth. is the chance that an single elderly in twelvemonth dies before making age. is the chance that an single aged survives during the twelvemonth and reaches age ; note. is the cardinal mortality rate at age during the clip. is the exposure to hazard at age during twelvemonth. It represents the entire clip lived by people aged during the twelvemonth. represents the figure of deceases at age during the clip, from an exposure to hazard. represents the figure of persons aged in life during the twelvemonth. is the expected staying life-time of single aged in the clip. is the monetary value of the net present value of a life rente sold to an single elderly in twelvemonth. 2.2. Premises The cardinal mortality rate is supposed changeless within two sets to and to. For any given whole number and a day of the month, we so obtain: ( 1 ) The premise of a changeless mortality cardinal rate implies that for an single elderly in twelvemonth that: ( 2 ) Finally, two measures of involvement mostly used by demographists and statisticians are introduced. Life anticipation is a classical step sum uping the development of the mortality over the clip: ( 3 ) The computation is based on the survival chances from age to the ultimate age aa‚ ¬ † The maximal age considered depends on the pick of life table closings.[ 1 ]As the endurance chances are non available after clip, they must be extrapolated from a projection theoretical account. The life rente refers to the net present value of future payments sold to an single elderly in twelvemonth: ( 4 ) where is the price reduction factor that we suppose changeless over clip.[ 2 ] 3.2. Datas For this survey, male and female Gallic mortality informations have been taken from the Human Mortality database.[ 3 ]The informations consist of the cardinal mortality rate, the exposure to hazard, and the figure of deceases between two ages. It was desirable to utilize merely informations from 1947 through 2007. The period before 1947 has been ignored to avoid the mortality dazes associated with the first and 2nd universe wars. We consider merely the age scope between 60 and 98 old ages. Age classes younger than 60 twelvemonth are ignored, since the aims of this survey focal point on length of service hazard jobs. The information, at older age ( over 98 old ages ) have besides been excluded due to the little figure of subsisters. Mortality at older ages will be however generated from a log quadratic map ( inside informations will be given in subdivision 3.5 ) . Figures 1-a and 1-b show the development of Gallic mortality during this period. A net decrease in mortality is observed f or both work forces and adult females, in peculiar at advanced ages. [ Figure 1 about here. ] 3. Methodology 3.1. A Poisson log bilinear theoretical account Following the attack introduces by Brouhns et Al. ( 2002b ) , the figure of deceases is captured by a Poisson distribution: ( 1 ) where is the force of mortality, designed as a log bilinear construction. The parametric quantities have the same reading as in the traditional Lee Carter theoretical account. The measures, and are specific age parametric quantities, is a time-varying parametric quantity stand foring the development of mortality over the clip. Again, is the exposure to hazard.[ 4 ]. The merchandise of and is the strength parametric quantity of the Poisson distribution ( ) . ItHe represents the expected figure of deceases during the twelvemonth. Finally, as in the Lee-Carter theoretical account, we impose restraints on parametric quantities and to guarantee theoretical account designation: ( 2 ) One advantage of the Poisson log bilinear theoretical account over the Lee Carter theoretical account is that appraisal is realized by maximising the likeliness, alternatively of a remarkable value decomposition ( SVD ) . Consequently, there is no demand to hold a complete rectangular matrix of informations to gauge parametric quantities. Furthermore, a Poisson log bilinear gives straight the figure of deceases whereasile the Lee Carter theoretical account gives merely an appraisal of decease rates. 3.2. Model appraisal The log bilinear Poisson theoretical account is estimated by maximising the log-likelihood: ( 3 ) The presence of the bilinear term does non let one to using classical Poisson arrested development. To avoid this job, the appraisal is resolved by the simple Newton method, ( Goodman, ( 1979 ) . The rule consists into updatinge the individual set of parametric quantities whilein repairing the other parametric quantity at their current values: ( 4 ) The lLog bilinear Poisson theoretical account comprisesaccounts three different sets of parametric quantities, the, the, and the vector vector. The updating algorithm is organized as follow: : ( 5 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) wWhere is the expected figure of deceases occuroccurringed each twelvemonth. [ ? ] propose to initialise the algorithm with get downing values, , and. At the terminal of the updating measure, the theoretical account designation is non ensured. To esteem the restraint suggested by Lee and Carter ( 1992 ) , the theoretical account must be reparametrized as follows: ( 8 ) ( 9 ) ( 10 ) wWhereith and is the mean of footings. Contrary to the Lee Carter attack, there is no demand to readapt the procedure the kappa as own map of the figure of deceases. 3.3. Modeling the time- factor under a Markov shift theoretical account As underlined by Sweeting ( 2010 ) emphasizes in defence of the pick of government exchanging theoretical accounts to capture dynamic mortality, the mortality procedure exhibits a sudden interruption during the last century, supporting the pick of government exchanging theoretical accounts to capture dynamic mortality. Following this determination, we model the procedure with a regime-switching theoretical account. The procedure exhibits a non- stationarity. The application of a first- difference filter removes the tendency constituent from the series and gives a stationary procedure toon which we can use our theoretical account. Let be the clip series, obtained from the first differenced. We suppose that is modeled as a regime- shift procedure: ( 11 ) ( 12 ) andWhere and are, severally, the intercept and the autoregressive coefficients comparative to each province. The term represents the vector of conditional remainders. The term is the conditionnal residuary term, usually distributed with a average equal to zero and a regime-dependent criterion divergence. The theoretical account described here is really general and allows intercepts, autoregressive footings, and covariances to change across provinces. When presuming one government is assumed, the theoretical account becomes a simple AR ( cubic decimeter ) theoretical account. Governments passages are governed by a procedure that satisfies the undermentioned Markov concatenation belongingss: ( 13 ) Hence, each government is the realisation of a first- order Markov concatenation with changeless passage chances. The province kineticss are unseen and must be inferred straight from the discernible variable. The passage chances are represented in the passage matrix: ( 14 ) Each component of the matrix P must fulfill the undermentioned conditions: ( 15 ) The choice of figure of governments is a current job infrom regime- exchanging theoretical account researchs. To find the figure of governments, we adopted the information standard for theoretical account choice. This method offers good consequences and is easy to transport out ( Psaradakis and Spagnolo, ( 2006 ) . Refering the pick of information standard, we preferprefer to used the MSC standard that has beenwas developed specifically for regime- shift theoretical accounts, ( Smith et al. , ( 2006 ) . However, the AIC standard is besides reported. To gauge the theoretical account, we use an iterative numerical process based on the Expected Maximization ( ) algorithm developed by Dempster et Al. ( 1977 ) . The process is an optimisation technique designed for theoretical accounts where the ascertained clip series depends on an unobservable stochastic variable, such as in Markov exchanging theoretical accounts. The get downing values required to initialise the algorithm are obtained by using the K-means method ( MacQueen et al. , ( 1967 ) . 3.4. Prospective life tabular arraies and assurance intervals In prediction, an indispensable inquiry concerns the degree of uncertainness degree relation to the forecasted measures, such as mortality rate or life anticipations. A good cognition of the distribution and assurance intervals of forecasted measures aAlso, he appears indispensable to hold a good cognition of distribution or assurance intervals of forecasted measures. Unfortunately, in theour instance we are analyzing, we can non deduce an analytical look for the distribution or assurance intervals. This is due to facts that, the building of prospective life tabular arraies needfully involvesrequires uniting two kinds oftype mistakes. The first mistake arises from the appraisal of, , and. The 2nd mistake comes from the projection of, because of the parametric quantities of regime-s shift theoretical accounts are themselves random variables. Furthermore, the involvement measures of involvement, such as life anticipation, are non- additive complex maps of Poisson parametric quantities and regime- shift parametric quantities ; , this poses an extra complication. To get the better of these jobs, a Monte Carlo simulation process is used to come close the distribution of involvement pertinent measures such as mortality rate, life anticipation, and life rente. The simulation is organized as follows. First, we generate MM samples of, , and, where m is the index relation to the m-th simulations. Let be the m-thmth fake parametric quantity sets composed of, , and. Under regularity premises, asymptotic belongingss of maximal likeliness calculators ( MLE ) warrants that is generated followerss a multivariate normal distribution ( MND ) with average vector, , , and covariance matrix given by the opposite of the Fisher information mMatrix. From the fake series, we estimate MM government exchanging theoretical accounts and obtain MM parametric quantity sets denoted. Each set is composed of, , , , and elements of the associated passage chances matrix associated. The parametric quantity sets are so used to bring forth MM projections of, denoted. Note that under regime- shift scenes, the predicted values do notnaa‚ ¬a„?t depend merely on estimated parametric quantity sets as in the instance of additive theoretical accounts. They are besides affected by the initial distribution of governments, denoted by the vector of chances selected as exogenic.[ 5 ]. In a two- government theoretical account without autoregressive footings, the fake values are given by ( 16 ) wWhere is a Markov concatenation generated from the initial province vector and chances passage matrix. The map is an index map equal to 1 if the procedure province is in the government. The projection is so derived from. The fake parametric quantity sets, , , and are eventually combined to build MM prospective life tabular arraies, denoted ( 17 ) wWhere m is the index relation to the mt-th simulations, the initial distribution of mortality governments, and the day of the month from which the values are projected. 3.5. Polynomial smoothing of older ages and shutting of life tabular array closings The computation of the mortality rate in old ageat older ages, poses significant jobs to demographists and statisticians. Indeed, mortality informations for older agesat older ages are frequently characterized by the presence of outlier informations. Wilmoth ( 1995 ) identifies two chief grounds. First, big random fluctuations are comparative to the little figure of single who survive to older age. Second, that is due to inaccuracies exist in the coverage of age in nose count. These inaccuracies causeprovide to cumulative deformation of heaping on ages by a multiple of five or ten. A natural solution to get the better of at this job is to smooth the mortality informations get downing from a specific age, for illustration, 80 old ages. Wilmoth ( 1993 ) established that the curve of the log mortality rate has a concave signifier inat older age. From On the footing of these findings, Denuit and Goderniaux ( 2005 ) proposed seting the log mortality by least squaresss square with a log-qu adratic map: ( 1 ) Capable to the Under contraintsconstraints: ( 2 ) wWhere corresponds to the first derived function of. The restraints and correspond to conditions of the shutting of the life tabular array. The first restraint fixes the upper bound of lifetime, while the 2nd assumessupposes that the incline of the log mortality curve become zeronull at maximal age. CIn uniting these equations, we obtain: ( 3 ) To find the age from which it is necessary to get downing log quadratic parameterization, we refer to [ ? ] in which it is the finding ofchoose to find so as to in maximising the coefficient of finding. In Our instance, = . A simple geometric mean is used to smooth the mortality rate around to this age. 4. An application to Gallic population mortality 4.1. Appraisal of Poisson log bilinear theoretical account The log bilinear Poisson theoretical account, presented in subdivision 3.1, is applied to French data sets. Figure 3 plots the value of, , and obtained from the appraisal. As in the classical Lee Carter theoretical account, may be interpreted as the norm of. The curve is monotonically increasing, relatinged to higher mortality with age. As expected, adult females present values that are ever lower than those of work forces, reflecting a highersuperior life anticipation. Figure 2-b exhibits the form. The curve increases somewhat until age 75 old ages, and so diminutions. The values remain positive, bespeaking a decrease of mortality for all ages. The term is plotted ion figure 2-c. This term reflects the lessening of mortality over the clip.[ 6 ]. As expected, it exhibits a regular bettering tendency, slightlygently more of import for adult females than work forces. After 2007, the calculationus of mortality rates requires knowledge ofto know the future values of. For this, we projectate future values from the regime- shift theoretical account as described in subdivision 3.3. Since the augmented Dickey Fuller trial, reported in table 1, confirmsAs that the series is non-stationary ( The augmentedDickey Fuller trial are reported in table 1 confirms it ) , , the appraisal and projection are based on the differenced series, viz. ) , whichthat is stationary. The tabular array besides reports the descriptive statistics of. He appearsIt emerges that exhibits an surplus of lopsidedness and kurtosis, in peculiar in the instance of notably by adult females. A Jarque-Bera trials is besides reported to analyze whethertest if follows a G aussian distribution. It is clearHe appears clearly that the behaviour is non-t Gaussian for both work forces and adult females. This confirms the, corroborating the involvement ofto patterning the time- varying constituent with a regime- shift theoretical account. [ Table 1 about here. ] [ Figure 2 about here. ] 4.2. Forecasting the mortality with government exchanging The kineticss of areis captured with a regime- shift theoretical account. To choose goods characteristics of the theoretical account, an information standard attack has been adopted. A big scope of specifications washas been tested byin augmenting bit by bit the figure of governments of governments and the figure of slowdown of slowdowns. The table 2 nowadayss merely the consequences for the instance and.[ 7 ]. – regime- exchanging theoretical account with regime-dependent impetus and regime-dependent criterion divergence theoretical account performs better than a single- government theoretical account for both work forces and adult females. the MSIH ( 2 ) theoretical account and geometric Brownian gesture ( GBM ) are reported ion tabular array 2. The two identified governments in government the shift theoretical accounts are easy explainable. The first government corresponds to a high uncertainness province of mortality development, while the 2nd is characterized by a low volatility of mortality. Indeed, the standard divergence is higher in the government 1 ( 3.64 for work forces and 6.25 for adult females ) than in the government 2 ( 0.43 for work forces and 0.85 for adult females ) . CThe comparing with the additive theoretical account reveals that the uncertainyuncertainty may be twice every bit high compared comparative to classical ARIMA appraisal. Our consequences uncover differences harmonizing to sexthe sexe. As expected, the drift term is more higher for adult females than for work forces, reflecting the current difference of life anticipation observed in mortality informations. However, the consequences besides indicate that the mortality development is more unsure 40 by adult females than forby work forces. Finally, the fact that the impetuss are non statistically significantly different from nothing in government 1, suggests that government 1 corresponds instead to a government of decelerating down inof anticipation life betterment. [ Table 3 about here. ] s after 1965. A similar information mutant is observed for adult females, excepted that the switch appears more Oklahomans, from 1960. Finally, a new switch of governments is captured in 2003 both for both work forces and adult females. This is explained by the heat wave that swept acrossof heat occurred in Europe, during the summer of 2003, which increased has caused an overmortality amongst frailer older peopleby older people the more frail. At the terminal of table 2, we report the ergodic chances and continuance steps relative to each mortality government. For work forces, we find that the chances to be in a government 1 or in a government 2 are comparatively closed. In footings of continuance, the governments are extremely relentless. For work forces and adult females, the government lastsgoes on around 20 old ages. The mortality regimes seem so sufficiently, adequate persistent to impact durably the life anticipation of insurance companies, and the degree of liabilities, which insurers consider. [ Figure 3 about here. ] 4.3. A distribution of pProspective life tabular arraies As explained in the subdivision 3.4, a Monte Carlo simulation is used to bring forth 5000 samples of the original parametric quantities the simulation are non reported here for deficiency of infinite, but are available on demand. The assurance intervals derived from the sSimulations, give us a good position of the uncertainness relation to the log bilinear Poisson appraisal. From the fake parametric quantities for the regime- shift parametric quantities theoretical account is so obtained.s. The quantile s the general degree of uncertainness relation to mortality projection. [ Table 4 about here. ] tabular arraies are so derived from the fake parametric quantities ( wWhere – shift scenes, the prediction of mortality rates depends on the distribution of the mortality government at the day of the month of projection, namelyFor the interest of simplificationTo interest of simplify, we assume that the active government in s to has two possible instances, viz. pertinent measures will be computed as maps of both distributions. A last measure is required to finalise the life tabular arraies. As explained in the subdivision 3.4, we apply aA log- quadratic map to smooth mortality at older ages and shut the tabular arraies as discussed in [ ? ] – quadratic theoretical account is fixed at 80 old ages. Figure 4 gives an illustration of smoothed and closed life tabular arraies, including projections out tountil 2050 and presuming an initial distribution tabular arraies, we derive two other involvement measures of involvement, viz. the distribution of life anticipation, and the distribution of a life rente ( i.e. , a net individual premium life rente ) . The life anticipation and the net individual premium are investigated utilizing the longitudinal ( cohort ) attack ( cohort attack ) . This method differs from the transversal attack in the sense thatwhere the development of mortality is non investigated merely in footings of calendar times, but besides takes into history the twelvemonth of individualsaa‚ ¬a„? birthdays. Under the longitudinal attack, life anticipation and the life rente are given by – twelvemonth endurance probabilities the mortality rate In the computation of the life rente, we assume that the price reduction factor the short rate observed over the sample period ( 1947-2007 ) , equal to 4 % . It appears that the mortality government affects well the distribution of life anticipation and life rente well. Harmonizing to the active government at the projection day of the month, the distributions function exhibits different forms, bespeaking that the mortality government affects the jutting values, but besides the uncertainness relation to projections. If we consider the instance where the government 1 is active at the projection day of the month, the life anticipation distribution nowadayss fat dress suits compared to the Gaussian instance, bespeaking that the classical projection theoretical account ( ARIMA theoretical account ) may underestimatea possible underestimate of life anticipation betterments by the classical projection theoretical account ( ARIMA theoretical account ) . That fact is peculiarly of import for statisticians, whothat decide theto sums of money required to fund the payment of the pensions, or the safety border required to hedgethe coverage of the uncertainness relatingve to the betterment inof life anticipation. Harmonizing to the new European solvency system ( Solvency II ) , the solvency capital demand ( SCR ) must vouch that Thea ruin chance of ruin is below toless than iesy supplying life rentes run the hazard that the choosen safety burden is non plenty to vouch the payment of pensions. , and endorsers. First, how do mortality governments affect the hazard of life rente portfolios? Second, what is the economic cost of disregarding governments? To reply to theseis two inquiries, we follow [ ? ] a life rente portfolio of life rentes under different mortality regime- exchanging scenes. 5.1. Methodology See a portfolio composed of of age 65 old ages, supplying a unit capital at the terminal of each twelvemonth. At the beginning of the distribution stage, in 2007, the company which manages the life rentes portfolio defines a measure of money ( i.e. , net individual premiums ) , matching to the value nowadays of the expected cost of paying a decease benefit. Each twelvemonth, one unit of money is distributed to each populating single. The portion of non- distributed militias is reinvested, bring forthing a returnthe last single. Let rReserve available at the get downing day of the month. the portfolio. The figure of deceases a Ppoisson distribution withof strength parametric quantity the one- twelvemonth subsister chances from s during 2007 is so simulated from the Poisson distribution utilizing: the old subdivision, the figure of deceases depends straight on the initial active government. So, sSimulations are conducted for each initial mortality province. The figure of subsisters at the beginning of following twelvemonth is given by: , the initial modesty of rentes, the rReserve is so equal to: vanishes wholly vanished, for the last single. We besides assume that the rate of return on the modesty the price reduction rate ( 4 % ) . At the beginning of the distribution stage, we assume that the company gets an sum, the net individual premiums ) , which is used to pay the pensions until the decease of the last single. We investigate five three calculating methods for calculating of this sum: : Pure premium under cross position. We consider the instance where the net individual premium is merely computed from mortality informations from 2007 ( without any mortality projection ) . Regime-dependent pure premium under longitudinal position. The mortality rates are projected utilizing a Markov exchanging theoretical account, and used to monetary value life annuitiesy as described in subdivision 3.4. Note that under the Markov shift model, the net individual premium is a regime-dependent measure, which differs harmonizing to the initial active government. Regime-dependent pure premium + safety border under longitudinal position. Finally, we investigated the instance where a safety border is added to the conditional expected premium computed from longitudinal attack. The net individual premiums are defined, by bear downing the 90 % , 95 % , and 99.5 % percentile of life rente denseness, as described in old subdivision. For each value of net individual premiums, we compute five hazard indexs, mensurating how mortality projection affects the life rentes portfolio, viz. : tThe pProbability of ruin which is, i.e. , the chance that the net individual premium defined in 2007 does notnaa‚ ¬a„?t suffice to pay all the promised payments. The chance is computed byin sing a rate of return on the modesty equal to the price reduction rate. tThe clip until ruin, i.e. , means the mean figure of twelvemonth elapsed before ruin, given that the ruin occurs. tThe average loss, i.e. , corresponds to the norm of the shortages registered for the twelvemonth whenre the ruin occurs. tThe average figure of staying cContracts, i.e. , contracts staying in the twelvemonth whenre the ruin occurs. tThe fudging involvement rate, i.e. , which is the involvement rate on the modesty needed to guarantee a entire hedge of length of service hazard ( in other wordsi.e. , a chance of ruin thatwhich is niull ) . 5.2. Consequences of Cash flow Simulation Tables 5 and 6 resume the chief consequences of the simulations. Hazard steps are computed for each value of a net individual premium. Tables 5-a and 6-a show the simulation consequences when the initial province is the government 1, while tabular arraies 5-b and 6-b refer to the state of affairs where the government 2 is active. Note fFirst that, sSimulations highlights the importance of mortality projections. The net individual premiums computed on the footing of the transversal method leads to the bankruptcy in about of 80 % of fake instances. We find that about one 3rd of contracts are non fulfilledsatisfied and the average loss at the minute of ruin corresponds to more thanof 20 % of the nominal sum. [ Table 5 about here. ] a logical decrease oflogically diminishing the chance of ruin. However, ithe appears to be necessary to include a safety burden, since bear downing the pure premiums on the footing of the longitudinal method consequences into the negative hard currency flow in 50 % of fake instances. The last row of each tabular array considers the instance where the Ssolvency Ccapital Rrequirement is applied, ( that is, intending that the safety lading allow to coverensures coverage of 99.5 % of the fake scenarios ) . As expected, the chance of ruin, the average loss, mean and the figure of unfulfilledsatisfying contracts so decreases so substantiallysignificantly. An indispensable determination of our research concerns the fact that the mortality province active at the beginning of the distribution stage affects well the hazard of life rente portfolios well. For a similar degree of hazard ( i.e. , ruin chance of ruin ) , we note big differences in the pure premium harmonizing to which ofwhen the government 1 or regime 2 is active or when the government 2 is active. The safety burden, which is the extra sum of modesty required to restrict the ruin chance, is besides affected. If we consider the degree of ruin defined harmonizing to Ssolvency II2, ithe appears that the safety burden is twice as higher when the government 1 is active, reflecting the strong uncertainness comparative toin mortality development inrelative to this province. It is besides interesting to observe that mortality governments affects the day of the month of bankruptcy, the degree of average loss or the figure of unfulfilledsatisfying contracts. All these steps are deterior ated when the government 1 is active at the beginning of the distribution stage. [ Table 6 about here. ] Simulations performed on the female informations confirm these consequences. It appears clearly that the initial province affects the hazard of the portfolio. However, the consequences highlight differences harmonizing to the gender of endorsers. The day of the month of bankruptcy occurs subsequently on norm more recently for adult females than for work forces, while the average loss is higher for adult females than for work forces. Similarly, the figure of staying contracts at the bankruptcy day of the month is higher for adult females than for work forces. So far, we established that the existencepresence of government shift in the distribution of mortality could impact the hazard of life rente portfolios well. This grounds does non connote, nevertheless, that companiesy thatwhich manages the life rente portfolios are is needfully better off if they accountby accounting for governments in the mortality distribution. So, we assess hence the economic cost of governments. We undertake this analysisdo it by comparing the hazard step under the regime- shift theoretical account of mortality to the riskat presuming the pension director is constrainedt to take a net individual premium under the premise that mortality development follows a simple geometric Brownian gesture. Table 6 presents the brinies consequences. Columns 1 and 3 study the chance of ruin when the pension director is constrainedt to disregard governments. We find that disregarding governments increases well the hazard of bankruptcy for a starting government of high volatility ( province 1 ) . That suggests a possible underestimate of length of service hazard by the classical projection theoretical account.[ 8 ]. For the instance where the pension director triesy to esteem the Ssolvency Ccapital Rrequirement ( last row of each tabular array ) , disregarding high volatility governments is tantamount to doublinge the chance of ruin for male endorsers ( from 0.5 % to 1.1 % ) , and to multiplying it by 5 for female endorsers ( from 0.5 % to 2.4 % ) . A 2nd manner to quantify the effects relative to disregarding the governments is to calculate the fluctuation of safety burden, fulfilling the ruin chance mark. In other word, what is the sum of safety burden that a pension director constrained tot disregarding governments must add in order for that the ruin chance of his portfolio to match to the true mark. The per centums are reported in the columns 2 and 4 of table 6. For statisticians and pension directors, an highly relevantinteresting value for the safety burden is that necessaryrelative to esteem the mark defined by solvency 2Solvency II. We find that disregarding a high volatility government is tantamount to underestimatinge the safety lading byfrom 13 % for work forces and byfrom 27 % for adult females, compared to the degrees predicted by the classical ARIMA theoretical account. These consequences confirms therefore the importance of taking accounting mortality regimes into history for the direction of theportfolios of life rentes life rente portfolio. [ Table 7 about here. ] 62. Decision This paper explores the presence being of governments in mortality kineticss and measures the deductions for a portfolios of life annuitiesy. This is achievedWe do it by capturing the kineticss of time- changing mortality constituents obtained by a Poisson log bilinear theoretical account appraisal with a Markov exchanging theoretical account. The pick of a Markov exchanging theoretical account is motivated by the fact that time- changing constituents exhibits sudden alterations of tendencies and exhibitpresents lopsidedness and fat dress suits, bespeaking a non- Gaussian distribution. The theoretical account is applied to the Gallic mortality informations from 1947 to 2007. The appraisals reveal the existencepresence of two governments in mortality kineticss. The first government is characterized by a highstrong volatility, and is operativeactive during the 20 old ages after the Ssecond Wworld War ; t. The 2nd identified government corresponds to a province of low volatility, and ca ptures the recent development of mortality. Using Monte Carlo simulation, we derive a conditional distribution of prospective life tabular arraies, and utilize them in order to look into the influence of mortality governments on the hazard of life rente portfolios. Simulations show that mortality governments affect well the monetary value of life rente merchandises and the safety burden required to cover the uncertainness relation to betterments in life anticipation life betterment. The fact of ignoringIgnorance of these governments result Immigration and Naturalization Services to underestimate of e the true hazard of bankruptcy. Harmonizing to our computationsing, disregarding a high volatility mortality government is tantamount to bearinghave a chance of ruin toof 1.1 % for work forces and to 2.5 % for adult females. However, Solvency II while solvency 2 regulations recommend that this chance ishould be smaller than 0.5 % . Our consequences argue in favour of mortality projections under government exchanging instead under ARIMA theoretical accounts. Indeed, mortality governments affect clearly the rating of liabilities, and disregarding governments consequences in to underestimation ofe the length of service hazard or mortality hazard. Sing In position of the prudential attack required by the rating of liabilities, the incorporation ofhe appears necessary of accounting mortality governments in thefor direction of the life rente portfolios appears necessary, and it seems sensible to recommend that the least favourable government should be used toeventually to monetary value the life annuitiesy or decease insurance merchandises utilizing the government the most unfavourable.

Presentation software Essay

Save a copy of this document, either onto your computer or a disk Work through your Assessment, remembering to save your work regularly When you’ve finished, print out a copy to keep for reference Then, go to www.vision2learn.com and send your completed Assessment to your tutor via your My Study area – make sure it is clearly marked with your name, the course title and the Unit and Assessment number. Please note that this Assessment document has 8 pages and is made up of 3 Parts. Learning outcomes Throughout this Assessment, you will meet a number of different learning outcomes and assessment criteria. Take a look at the information below to see which criteria you will meet in which Parts of the Assessment. Learning outcomes & Assessment criteria met Part 1: 1.1 Identify what types of information are required for the presentation 1.2 Enter text and other information using layouts appropriate to type of information 1.3 Insert charts and tables into presentation slides 1.4 Insert images, video or sound to enhance the presentation 1.6 Organise and combine information of different forms or from different sources for presentations 1.7 Store and retrieve presentation files effectively, in line with local guidelines and conventions where available 2.1 Identify what slide structure and themes to use 2.2 Select, change and use appropriate templates for slides 2.4 Select and use appropriate techniques to format slides and presentations 2.5 Identify what presentation effects to use to enhance the presentation 2.6 Select and use animation and transition effects appropriately to enhance slide sequences 3.2 Prepare slideshow for presentation Part 2: 1.7 Store and retrieve presentation files effectively, in line with local guidelines and conventions where available 2.2 Select, change and use appropriate templates for slides 2.3 Select and use appropriate techniques to edit slides and presentations to meet needs 2.4 Select and use appropriate techniques to format slides and presentations 3.2 Prepare slideshow for presentation Part 3: 1.5 Identify any constraints which may affect the presentation 3.1 Describe how to present slides to meet needs and communicate effectively 3.2 Prepare slideshow for presentation 3.3 Check presentation meets needs, using IT tools and making corrections as necessary 3.4 Identify and respond to any problems with presentations to ensure that presentations meet needs Assessment Scenario You work for the Sales department of The Fruit and Veggie People Ltd, a company that sells organic, ethically sourced fruit and vegetable boxes. You are responsible for putting together a presentation that advertises their key products. You have been given an initial draft of the presentation content to edit and prepare before it is used in sales meetings to show clients the different products that are available. You have been asked to edit and prepare the presentation, taking it from 1st draft to final draft ready for use in sales meetings. Part 1: Creating your presentation (1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.6, 1.7, 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 3.2) In this Part of the Assessment, you will need to apply the knowledge you have acquired in Session 1 – 5 of your PS2 Unit. Please note: You will have downloaded the resource files presentation_content, fruit_image and veg_image from the Unit Assessment Page to complete this part of the Assessment. 1. Begin by saving this assessment document as PS2 Assessment in an appropriate location. Take a screenprint of the file saved in this location and paste it in the space below: 2. In this Part of the Assessment, you need to produce a slide show presentation for The Fruit and Veggie People’s sales team so that they can show off the organisation’s best products to potential customers. Use the box below to identify the different types of information you could be required to include in your presentation. To make the presentation look professional and attractive, I would be using as many different types of information as possible, such as pictures, charts, sound, videos, tables and of course text and numbers. 3. Now create your presentation using a suitable template in PowerPoint. The presentation must be structured appropriately and must contain: At least 6 slides A theme At least 4 examples of inserting objects (this must include the two image files fruit_image and veg_image, a chart, a table and a Clip Art sound clip.) A slide containing references for the image files you have used At least 1 animation effect At least 1 slide transition At least 3 different kinds of text formatting (e.g. using bold, italics, colour, alignment or underlining) Content for the presentation can be found in the presentation_content resource file. Please note that in the presentation_content file, the person who has drafted the presentation has left you some instructions in red. When you are happy with your work, save your work as PS2_presentation. Remember to also save any work you’ve done on this PS2 Assessment. Part 2: Making changes to your presentation (1.7, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 3.2) In this Part of the Assessment, you will need to apply the knowledge you have acquired in Session 1 – 6 of your PS2 Unit. 1. Re-open the presentation PS2_presentation that you saved in Part 1 of this Assessment. 2. Use the Slide Master view in PowerPoint to change the master styles on Slide 1 of your presentation template. Use the box below to describe the changes you have made. On my first slide, I’ve used obviously the Title Slide layout. I have made the following modifications to it: – Changed the background gradient mode and its colours – Changed the position of the slide number which is part of the header 3. Change the order of slides in your presentation by switching Slide 3 and Slide 4 around. 4. In Part 1, you added a series of objects to your presentation (such as tables, charts, images etc.) Edit your presentation by changing the size and position of one of these objects. Use the box below to give details of the changes you have made: There is a green box picture (the one with the recycling sign on it) on my fifth slide, which I’ve made a bit smaller at this point and also repositioned it from the upright region to the right bottom one. 5. Finally, add a simple shape, such as an arrow or a star, to an appropriate point in your presentation. Use the box below to give details of the shape you have added and where it can be found in your presentation. I’ve placed a few arrows to my sixth slider on the top of the line graph to make even more obvious, that the business is doing better every year. I’ve changed the colour and size of all the arrows and finally added them to the same animation that has been used on the line graph itself. When you are happy with your work, save your amended presentation as PS2_presentation_edited. Remember to also save the work you’ve done on this PS2 Assessment document. Part 3: Finalising your presentation (1.5, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4) In this Part of the Assessment, you will need to apply knowledge you have acquired in Session 6 of your PS2 Unit. 1. List at least two constraints that may affect your presentation. This should include one legal constraint, and one constraint provided by your organisation (or one that you are familiar with.) By creating a presentation, there’s a number of constraints has to be considered either by law (equal opportunities, acknowledging sources) or in order to maintain the consistency within the company or organisation (house style, time, local guidelines), that will be using it. 2. Explain how your presentation meets the needs of the sales team at The Fruit and Veggie People Headquarters. My presentation takes less than 2 minutes to show and doesn’t require mouse click to move on except for at the final references slide. This presentation will be published on business meetings, so every second counts. It has a small file size, therefore it is easily downloadable, can be forwarded via email or streamed online without even downloading it in the future. It is short enough to keep the attention awaken, colourful, contains sound effect, animations and transitions, therefore it encourages people watching it carefully, which is the company’s goal. 3. List at least five things you should check in your presentation to ensure that it is suitable for viewing. Before publishing any presentation I need to check its quality, design, content and the constraints, that needs to be taken into account. First I should do a spell check, and an overall content check (accuracy and clarity) to make sure it contains all the information in the right order it has to, therefore it is easily understandable for the viewers). Second I need to check the design has been used including the text formatting, the position and size of the pictures and other contents, as well as the timing, animations and transitions. Finally needs to be checked, that the presentation follows the local guidelines of the company, contains the list of sources and references. 4. Now use your list from question 3 above to check your presentation. Make changes as necessary in response to any problems you identify in your presentation. Use the box below to list any problems you have identified and the changes you have made to ensure your presentation meets requirements. I’ve added the word â€Å"Romanesco† to the spellcheck dictionary, so in the future it will not be marked as a spelling error. I’ve changed the colour and the gradient of the main title on the first slide, so it better matches the colours of the modified master slide. Save your finished presentation as PS2_presentation_complete. Remember to also save the work you’ve done on your PS2 Assessment. Sending work Once you have completed all parts of this Assessment, you will need to send your work to your tutor so that they can see the progress you have made. Please make sure you send all of the following files: 1. This document, your PS2 Assessment 2. The presentation that you created at the end of Part 1 saved as PS2_presentation 3. The presentation that you created at the end of Part 2 saved as PS2_presentation_edited 4. The final version of the presentation that you created at the end of Part 3 saved as PS2_presentation_complete. Once you have checked to make sure you have these four files, go to www.vision2learn.com and send your files to your tutor via your My Study area.

Main Problems of Lexicology Essay

Lexicology is the study of words-their menanigs and relationships. * English vocabulary is one of the most extensive amongst the world’s lang.contains an immense number of words of forerign origin. * lexicology has to study the etymology of word,e.g.their origin, their development and function * And English is lang.which had changed a lot in a short period of time * So, lexicology has to deal with all the changes in grammar and the vocabulary. WHY ARE WORDS BORROWED FROM 1 LANGUAGE INTO ANOTHER 2 Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language communities. Borrowing of words can go in both directions between the two languages in contact, but often there is an asymmetry, such that more words go from one side to the other. In this case the source language community has some advantage of power, prestige and/or wealth that makes the objects and ideas it brings desirable and useful to the borrowing language community. For example, the Germanic tribes in the first few centuries A.D. adopted numerous loanwords from Latin as they adopted new products via trade with the Romans. Few Germanic words, on the other hand, passed into Latin.The actual process of borrowing is complex and involves many usage events (i.e. instances of use of the new word). Generally, some speakers of the borrowing language know the source language too, or at least enough of it to utilize the relevant word. They (often consciously) adopt the new word when speaking the borrowing language, because it most exactly fits the idea they are trying to express. If they are bilingual in the source language, which is often the case, they might pronounce the words the same or similar to the way they are pronounced in the source language. For example, English speakers adopted the word garage from French, at first with a pronunciation nearer to the French pronunciation than is now usually found. Presumably the very first speakers who used the word in English knew at least some French and heard the word used by French speakers, in a French-speaking context. PHONETIC ADJUSTMENT OF BORROWED WORDS 3 Purely phonetic change involves no reshuffling of the contrasts of a phonological system. All phonological systems are complex affairs with many small adjustments in phonetics depending on phonetic environment, position in the word, and so on. For the most part, phonetic changes are examples of allophonic differentiation or assimilation, that is, sounds in specific environments acquire new phonetic features or perhaps lose phonetic features they originally had.Many phonetic changes provide the raw ingredients for later phonemic innovations. In Proto-Italic, for example, intervocalic */s/ became *[z]. This was a phonetic change, a mild and superficial complication in the phonological system only, but when this *[z] merged with */r/, the effect on the phonological system was greater. TRANSLATION LOANS 4 By translation-loans (calques) we indicate borrowings of a special kind. They are not taken into the vocabulary of another language more or less in the same phonemic shape in which they have been functioning in their own language, but undergo the process of translation. It is quite obvious that it is only compound words (i. e. words of two or more stems) which can be subjected to such an operation, each stem being translated separately: masterpiece (from German Meisterstà ¼ck), wonder child (from German Wunderkind), first dancer (from Italian prima-ballerina). ANTONYMS ACCORDING TO WORD DERIVATIONAL STRUCTURE 5 Derivational antonyms. The regular type of derivational antonyms contains negative prefixes: dis-, il- /im-/in-/ir and un-. Other negative prefixes occur in this function only occasionally. Modern English prefers to form an antonym with the prefix un-; the suffix –less is old and not productive anymore. In the oppositions like hopeful – hopeless, useful –useless the suffix –less is contrasting to the suffix -ful, not to the stem (otherwise the antonyms would be: hope – hopeless). E.g. selfish – unselfish, not selfish – â€Å"selfishless†. Derivational antonyms may be characterised as contradictory. A pair of derivational antonyms forms a binary opposition (complementary root antonyms). E.g. logical – illogical, appear – disappear. Not only words, but set expressions as well, can be grouped into antonymic pairs. E.g. by accident – on purpose. BROADENING AND NARROWING 6 â€Å"Broadening of meaning. This occurs when a word with a specific or limited meaning is widened. The broadening process is technically called generalization. An example of generalization is the word business, which originally meant ‘the state of being busy, careworn, or anxious,’ and was broadened to encompass all kinds of work or occupations.† Another example of the broadening of meaning is pipe. Its earliest recorded meaning was â€Å"a musical wind instrument†. Nowadays it can denote any hollow oblong cylindrical body (e. g. water pipes). This meaning developed through transference based on the similarity of shape (pipe as a musical instrument is also a hollow oblong cylindrical object) which finally led to a considerable broadening of the range of meaning. â€Å"Narrowing of meaning. This happens when a word with a general meaning is by degrees applied to something much more specific. The word litter, for example, meant originally (before 1300) ‘a bed,’ then gradually narrowed down to ‘bedding,’ then to ‘animals on a bedding of straw,’ and finally to things scattered about, odds and ends. . . . Other examples of specialization are deer, which originally had the general meaning ‘animal,’ girl, which meant originally ‘a young person,’ and meat, whose original meaning was ‘food.'† We say that narrowing takes place when a word comes to refer to only part of the original meaning. The history of the word hound in English neatly illustrates this process. The word was originally pronounced hund in English, and it was the generic word for any kind of dog at all. This original meaning is retained, for example, in German, where the word Hund simply means ‘dog.’ 7. Phraseological units are a kind of ready-made blocks which fit into the structure of a sentence performing a certain syntactical function, more or less as words do. EXP: We never know the value of water till the well is dry. You can take the horse to the water, but you cannot make him drink. Those who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones. The first distinctive feature that strikes one is the obvious structural dissimilarity. If one compares proverbs and phraseological units in the semantic aspect, the difference seems to become obvious. Proverbs could be best compared with minute fables for, like the latter, they sum up the collective experience of the community. They moralize (Hell is paved with good intentions), give advice (Don’t judge a tree by its bark}, give warning (If you sing before breakfast, you will cry before night), admonish (Liars should have good memories) No phraseological unit ever does any of these things. They do not stand for whole statements as proverbs do but for a single concept. Their function in speech is purely nominative (i. e. they denote an object, an act, etc.). The function of proverbs in speech, though, is communicative (i. e. they impart certain information).