Political Philosophy and Plato Essay

Credited as ace of the launchers of westerly philosophic system, he is an equivocal figure jockeyn chiefly through the accounts of later(prenominal) clear authors, especi in ally the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary Aristophanes. few(prenominal) would claim that Platos dialogues argon the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity. Through his portrayal in Platos dialogues, Socrates has travel ren owned for his contri thoion to the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who to a fault lends his distinguish to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic regularity perfor whileceing, or elenchus.The latter remains a plebeianly habituated tool in a wide feed of discussions, and is a type of pedagogy in which a series of questions ar asked non al unrivaled to draw some corpse answers, that also to aid fundamental insight into the issue at hand. It is Platos Socrates that also do chief(prenominal) and lasting contri plainlyions to the fields of epistemology and logic, and the operate of his brains and approach remains upstanding in providing a foundation for much western philosophy that followed. As unity recent commentator has put it, Plato, the specimenist, offers an idol, a master figure, for philosophy.A Saint, a prophet of the Sun-God, a teacher condemned for his article of faiths as a presenttic. Yet, the real Socrates, c atomic number 18 many of the other ancient philosophers, remains, at surmount, enigmatic and, at worst, unknown. peradventure his most important contri how perpetuallyion to Western legal opinion is his dialectic method of inquiry, known as the Socratic method or method of elenchus, which he humongously applied to the examination of key incorrupt concepts much(prenominal) as the Good and Justice. It was first described by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues. To solve a problem, it would be broken down into a series of ques tions, the answers to which gradually distill the answer a person would seek.The influence of this approach is most strongly felt to twenty- 4 hour period in the use of the scientific method, in which hypothesis is the first stage. The development and practice of this method is one of Socrates most enduring contributions, and is a key factor in earning his mantle as the father of semi semi semipolitical philosophy, ethics or good philosophy, and as a figurehead of all the central themes in Western philosophy. To illustrate the use of the Socratic method a series of questions atomic minute 18 posed to help a person or group to go steady their under(a)lying beliefs and the extent of their knowledge.The Socratic method is a negative method of hypothesis elimination, in that better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. It was designed to force one to examine ones own beliefs and the logicality of much(prenominal) beliefs . In fact, Socrates once said, I know you wont believe me, but the highest convention of Human excellence is to question oneself and others. Philosophical beliefs The beliefs of Socrates, as distinct from those of Plato, are difficult to discern. miniature in the way of concrete evidence exists to demarcate the devil.The lengthy theories given over in most of the dialogues are those of Plato, and some scholars think Plato so fitted the Socratic style as to make the literary character and the philosopher himself insurmountable to distinguish. Others argue that he did have his own theories and beliefs, but there is much controversy over what these talent have been, owing to the hindrance of separating Socrates from Plato and the difficulty of interpreting even the dramatic writings concerning Socrates. Consequently, distinguishing the philosophical beliefs of Socrates from those of Plato and Xenophon is not tripping and it must(prenominal)iness be remembered that what is attributed to Socratesmight more closely reflect the limited concerns of these thinkers. The matter is complicated because the historical Socrates seems to have been notorious for asking questions but not answering, claiming to lack wisdom concerning the issues roughly which he questioned others. Socratic Paradoxes Many of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the historical Socrates have been characterized as paradoxal because they seem to conflict with prevalent sense. The following are among the so-called Socratic Paradoxes. No one desires evil. No one errs or does wrong leaveingly or knowingly. Virtueall virtueis knowledge.Virtue is sufficient for happiness. The phrase Socratic paradox crumb also refer to a self-referential paradox, originating in Socrates phrase, I know that I know aught noble and good. Knowledge peerless of the crush known sayings of Socrates is I only know that I know no function. The conventional interpretation of this remark is that Socrates wis dom was limited to an awareness of his own ignorance. Socrates believed wrongdoing was a consequence of ignorance and those who did wrong knew no better.The one thing Socrates consistently claimed to have knowledge of was the stratagem of love, which he attached with the concept of the love of wisdom, i. e. , philosophy. He neer actually claimed to be wise, only to ascertain the path a lover of wisdom must take in pursuing it. It is debatable whether Socrates believed humans (as opposed to gods same(p) Apollo) could actually become wise. On the one hand, he drew a clear line between human ignorance and angel knowledge on the other, Platos Symposium (Diotimas Speech) and republic (Allegory of the Cave) describe a method for ascending to wisdom.In Platos Theaetetus (150a), Socrates compares himself to a true matchmaker (????????????promnestikos), as severalize from a panderer (??? ?????? proagogos). This distinction is echoed in Xenophons Symposium (3. 20), when Socrates joke s about his conclusion of existenceness able to make a fortune, if he chose to practice the art of pandering.For his discontinue as a philosophical interlocutor, he leads his respondent to a clearer conception of wisdom, although he claims he is not himself a teacher (Apology). His role, he claims, is more properly to be understood as analogous to a accoucheuse (?? ? ? maia). Socrates explains that he is himself barren of theories, but knows how to bring the theories of others to birth and root whether they are worthy or mere wind eggs ( ????? ?? ? ? anemiaion).Perhaps signifi stooltly, he points out that midwives are barren due to age, and women who have never given birth are unable to become midwives they would have no experience or knowledge of birth and would be unable to break in the worthy infants from those that should be left on the hillside to be exposed. To judge this, the midwife must have experience and knowledge of what she is judging. Virtue Bust of Socrates in t he Palermo Archaeological Museum. Socrates believed the best way for people to live was to focus on self-development earlier than the pursual of material wealth. He always invited others to try to concentre more on friendships and a sense of true community, for Socrates felt this was the best way for people to grow in concert as a populace. His actions lived up to this in the end, Socrates accepted his death meter when most thought he would simply leave capital of Greece, as he felt he could not run away from or go against the will of his community as mentioned above, his reputation for valor on the battlefield was without reproach. The idea that humans possess certain virtues formed a common thread in Socrates teachings.These virtues re baffleed the most important qualities for a person to have, foremost of which were the philosophical or intellectual virtues. Socrates stressed that virtue was the most valuable of all possessions the model lifetime story was spent in search of the Good. Truth lies beneath the shadows of existence, and it is the traffic of the philosopher to show the rest how little they really know. Politics It is frequentlytimes argued that Socrates believed ideals give out in a world only the wise man can understand, making the philosopher the only type of person suitable to reign others. In Platos dialogue the state, Socrates was in no way sagacious about his spark officular beliefs on government.He openly objected to the republic that ran capital of Greece during his adult life. It was not only A thuslyian commonwealth Socrates objected to any form of government that did not conform to his ideal of a perfect republic led by philosophers, and A whereforeian government was far from that. It is, however, possible that the Socrates of Platos Republic is colored by Platos own views. During the last eld of Socrates life, Athens was in continual flux due to political upheaval. commonwealth was at last overthrown by a junta k nown as the thirty Tyrants, led by Platos relative, Critias, who had been a student of Socrates.The Tyrants command for about a year in the beginning the Athenian democracy was rein advanced, at which point it declared an amnesty for all recent events. Socrates opposition to democracy is very much denied, and the question is one of the biggest philosophical debates when trying to determine on the dot what Socrates believed. The strongest argument of those who claim Socrates did not actually believe in the idea of philosopher kings is that the view is expressed no earlier than Platos Republic, which is widely considered one of Platos Middle dialogues and not representative of the historical Socrates views.Furthermore, according to Platos Apology of Socrates, an aboriginal dialogue, Socrates refused to pursue conventional politics he often stated he could not look into others matters or tell people how to live their lives when he did not yet understand how to live his own. He beli eved he was a philosopher engaged in the pursuit of Truth, and did not claim to know it fully. Socrates acceptance of his death sentence, after his credence by the Boule (Senate), can also be seen to support this view.It is often claimed much of the anti-democratic leanings are from Plato, who was never able to overcome his disgust at what was done to his teacher. In any case, it is clear Socrates thought the rule of the Thirty Tyrants was at least as objectionable as Democracy when called before them to assist in the arrest of a fellow Athenian, Socrates refused and narrowly get away death before the Tyrants were overthrown. He did however fulfill his duty to come as Prytanis when a running play of a group of Generals who presided over a disastrous naval campaign were judged even then he maintain an uncompromising attitude, being one of those who refused to proceed in a appearance not supported by the laws, despite intense pressure.Judging by his actions, he considered the ru le of the Thirty Tyrants less legitimate than the Democratic Senate that sentenced him to death. Contributions of Socrates unitary Awakened thinkers to the need to examine and reexamine their political, moral, and philosophical views in come out to break down and root out errors and misconceptions that impede progress. Socrates accomplished this task by demonstrating, through cross-examination of people he encountered, that many accepted precepts, conventions, and beliefs were based on faulty logic or out remediate errors. A quotation attributed to him states The unexamined life is not worth living. In other rowing, a human being must not be complacent and self-satisfied kind of, he must be ever probing, exploring, and reconnoitering his soul in order to discover ways to improve. Two Effectively rebutted a central tenet of the Sophists, change of location teachers who charged fees for educating young men. This tenet maintained that the guiding principles of a society, much(pr enominal) as verticalice and truth, were relative conceptsthat is, they changed according to the needs of men in a particular time and place. What was considered right and just in Athens was not necessarily right and just in another society, the Sophists maintained. ace mans virtue could be another mans vice.Three Pioneered the use of inductive reasoning to draw logical conclusions. agree to Aristotle, Socrates founded the scientific method. Four Demonstrated that wrongdoing results from ignorance. If a man lies, Socrates might have said, he does so because he does not understand the benefits of express the truth. Five Inspired philosophers in his own time and in later times to pursue the truth through rigorous analysis of available, facts, opinions, and so on.Two of the most important philosophers in the history of the world, Plato and Aristotle, both consider Socrates as a supreme thinker and infused their philosophical systems with Socratic thought. Plato was a pupil of Soc rates, and Aristotle was a pupil of Plato. Six Showed the world the meaning of faithfulness and moral commitment by accepting a death sentence rather than recanting his principles. Seven Made clear that a human being is more than his appearance. Socrates was ugly, wore old clothes, and walked barefooted through the streets of Athens. But his mind and the wrangling he spoke were beautiful.The trial of Socrates The Trial of Socrates refers to the trial and the subsequent implementation of the partitioningical Athenian philosopher Socrates in 399 BC. Socrates was tried on the basis of 2 notoriously ambiguous charges corrupting the youth and impiety. More specifically, Socrates accusers cited two profane acts failing to acknowledge the gods that the metropolis acknowledges and introducing new deities. A bulk of the 501 dikasts (Athenian citizens elect by lot to serve as jurors) voted to convict him. Consistent with common practice, the dikasts determined Socrates punishment with another vote. Socrates was ultimately sentenced to death by tipsiness a hemlock-based liquid.The accuser Meletus swore before the Archon, a state office-holder with primarily religious duties. Having trenchant that there was a case to answer, the Archon summoned Socrates to appear before a dialog box of Athenian citizens, to answer charges of corrupting the youth of Athens and impiety. Athenian juries were rifle by lottery from a group of male citizen volunteers. Un equivalent trials in many modern societies, majority verdicts were the rule rather than the exception.Neither Plato nor Xenophon mentions the number of Socrates judges, though Platos Apology 35a-b does suggest some definite boundaries that if just thirty of the votes had been otherwise then he would have been acquitted, and that (perhaps) less than tether fifths voted against him by and by the vote on Socrates guilt, Socrates and his prosecutor suggested alternative sentences. Socrates, after expressing his perpl exity of the little amount he needed to be have been found innocent, jokingly suggested free meals at the Prytaneum, a particular honor held for city benefactors and winners at the Olympic Games, then offered to pay a fine of carbon drachmae, which was a fifth of his property and a testament to Socrates poverty.Finally he tagtled on the sum of 3000 drachmae, put forward by Plato, Crito, Critobulus, and Apollodorus, who guaranteed the payment. His prosecutor proposed the death penalty. The jury voted for death as the penalty the larger majority showing (Diogenes Laertius 2. 42). Perhaps Socrates had lost support by his slighting and unapologetic tone. Socratess followers encouraged him to flee, and citizens expected him to do so and were probably not averse to it but he refused on principle. Apparently in accordance with his philosophy of obedience to law, he carried out his own execution, by drinking the hemlock provided to him.Socrates died at the age of 70. Most scholars see t he assent and execution of Socrates as a deliberate choice made by the famous philosopher himself. If the accounts of Plato and Xenophon are reasonably accurate, Socrates sought not to persuade jurors, but rather to lecture and provoke them. The trial and execution of Socrates produced the first diseased person for free speech. PLATO Plato 428/427 BC 348/347 BC), was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of high learning in the Western world.Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science. In the famous articulates of A. N. Whitehead The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings. I allude to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them. Platos mundaneness as a writer is evident in his Socratic dialogues thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters have been ascribed to him. Platos writings have been publish in several fashions this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Platos texts.Platos dialogues have been used to teach a range of subjects, including philosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and mathematics Platos philosophical views had many societal implications, especially on the idea of an ideal state or government. There is some discrepancy between his early and later views. Some of the most famous doctrines are contained in the Republic during his middle period, as hale as in the Laws and the Statesman. However, because Plato wrote dialogues, it is assumed that Socrates is often speaking for Plato.This assumption may not be true in all cases. Plato, through the records of Socrates, asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure accommodateing to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul. The appetite/spirit/reason stand for different parts of the body. The body parts symbolize the castes of society Productive, which represents the abdomen. (Workers) the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the appetite part of the soul. Protective, which represents the chest. (Warriors or Guardians) those who are adventurous, strong and brave in the armed forces.These correspond to the spirit part of the soul. Governing, which represents the head. (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the reason part of the soul and are very few. According to this model, the principles of Athenian democracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a few are fit to rule. alternatively of rhetoric and pe rsuasion, Plato says reason and wisdom should govern. As Plato puts itUntil philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men genuinely and adequately philosophise, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide, while the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils, nor, I think, will the human race. (Republic 473c-d) Plato describes these philosopher kings as those who love the sight of truth (Republic 475c) and supports the idea with the analogy of a lord and his ship or a doctor and his medicine.According to him, sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings. However, it must be taken into account that the ideal city outlined in the Republic is qualified by Socrates as the ideal luxurious city, examined to determine how it is that injustice and justice grow in a city (Republic 372e).According to Socrates, the true and healthy city is instead the one first outlined in book II of the Republic, 369c372d, containing farmers, craftsmen, merchants, and wage-earners, but lacking the guardian class of philosopher-kings as well as delicacies such as perfumed oils, incense, prostitutes, and pastries, in addition to paintings, gold, ivory, couches, a multitude of occupations such as poets and hunters, and war. In addition, the ideal city is used as an sign to illuminate the state of ones soul, or the will, reason, and desires combined in the human body. Socrates is attempting to make an image of a rightly ordered human, and then later goes on to describe the different kinds of humans that can be let outd, from tyrants to lovers of money in variant kinds of cities.The ideal city is not promoted, but only used to magnify the different kinds of individual humans and the state of their soul. However, the philosopher king image was used by many after Plato to pardon their personal political beliefs. The philosophic soul according to Socrates has reason, will, and desires united in virtuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate love for wisdom and the courage to act according to wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right relations between all that exists. Wherein it concerns states and rulers, Plato has made interesting arguments.For instance he asks which is bettera bad democracy or a expanse reigned by a tyrant. He argues that it is better to be ruled by a bad tyrant, than be a bad democracy (since here all the people are now responsible for such actions, rather than one individual committing many bad deeds. ) This is emphasised within the Republic as Plato describes the event of mutiny onboard a ship. Plato suggests the ships crew to be in line with the democratic rule of many and the captain, although inhibited through ailments, the tyr ant.Platos description of this event is parallel to that of democracy within the state and the organic problems that arise. According to Plato, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, chasten from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honorable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (rule by the people), and finally to tyranny (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant). Plato went on to study with Socrates. He in condition(p) to reason and debate through Socrates. Plato was very close to him, and when he watched Socrates trial and murder in 399 BC, it disillusioned him greatly.He no longer trusted the government of Greece so he decided to open a usage in Athens instead of going into politics homogeneous everyone in his family had. Platos school for philosophers was started so that he could train those who would some day be his leaders of cities. His most famous student was Aristotle who later tutored black lovage the Great. Plato promoted ideas that would eventually effect even Thomas Aquinas who changed Catholic dogma to make it conform to the works of Aristotle. Platos ideas have greatly influenced the cerebration of modern governments such as in the founding of the American system.For example, Plato stated, Unless philosophers defy kingly rule in cities or those who are now called kings and princes become genuine and adequate philosophers, and political power and philosophy are brought together . . . there will be no respite from evil for cities. Plato and The expenditure good men pay for indifference to public affairs is to be ruled by evil men. From these first democratic societies of the Greeks, Platos teaching has not neccesarily been proven over time. The political philosopher, Hilter, for example, was democratically elected by an intelligent populace who were very pertain with public affairs. Platos thoughts about perceptions of verity are still of interest today.One allego ry went something like this Suppose a few men were captured when they were born, and made to live in a hollow out. They are chained by their neck and feet so that they cannot move at all. The men are facing a wall of stone. do- nada them burns a fire. In front of that is a wall on which their captors walk with puppets in their hands. The only truth they know is that of what shadows look like and muffled sound echoing throughout the hall. They know not what a true boat looks like, just the shadow of a boat. They make words for the objects they see. One day one of the men breaks free and gets out of the cave into the world.He sees the fire and the puppets and knows that all he has known all his life was just a piece of all he knew. He got to the open and was blinded by the sun. He had to re-learn what the world really was like. He erudite what true boats looked like and found that they were not at all like their shadows. He decided that his friends in the cave should also know th at what they truism was not real, but was just an image cast from a swinging fire. When he went down and told them, they laughed at him and told him he was wrong. They said Look dirty dog you not see the wall? That on the wall is a boat. He persisted in his story of the light, and they eventually killed him. This great analogy can hold in to what we know about heavens. As it is written in 1 Corinthians 1312, For now we see through a glass, darkly but then face to face now I know in part but then shall I know even as also I am known. Plato sensed that there was a reality asunder from his perception as many had sensed before him. The wisest man that ever lived, Solomon, acknowledged in Ecclesiastes 1 that there is nothing new under the sun. Indeed, centuries before Plato, it was recorded in Job 1222, He God reveals mysteries from the swarthiness and brings the deep darkness into light. The mysterious shadows of life can only be brought to the light of understanding by God as ex plained by the Apostle in John 15 And the light shineth in darkness and the darkness comprehended it not. And they killed what they didnt understand as they were unnerved of the reality of their sins and crucified the Light. Plato knew of this human fear factor, We can easily forgive a nipper who is afraid of the dark. The real tragedy of life is when men are afraid of the light. Plato Although Plato died in 347 BC, but his teaching continues to influence governments systems and even doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church.Most philosophers from antiquity up to today have stood on Platos broad shoulders attempting to use what he offered and see beyond the caves shadows. ARISTOTLE Aristotle (b. 384 d. 322 BCE), was a Greek philosopher, logician, and scientist. Along with his teacher Plato, Aristotle is generally regarded as one of the most influential ancient thinkers in a number of philosophical fields, including political theory. Aristotle was born in Stagira in northern Greece , and his father was a court physician to the king of Macedon. As a young man he canvas in Platos Academy in Athens.After Platos death he left Athens to conduct philosophical and biological research in Asia Minor and Lesbos, and he was then invited by King Philip II of Macedon to tutor his young son, Alexander the Great. Soon after Alexander succeeded his father, consolidated the conquest of the Greek city-states, and launched the invasion of the Persian Empire. Aristotle returned as a resident alien to Athens, and was a close friend of Antipater, the Macedonian viceroy. At this time (335323 BCE) he wrote, or at least worked on, some of his major treatises, including the Politics. When Alexander died suddenly, Aristotle had to flee from Athens because of his Macedonian connections, and he died shortly after.Aristotles life seems to have influenced his political thought in various ways his interest in biology seems to be expressed in the naturalism of his politics his interest in c omparative politics and his sympathies for democracy as well as monarchy may have been encouraged by his travels and experience of diverse political systems he criticizes harshly, while borrowing extensively, from Platos Republic, Statesman, and Laws and his own Politics is intended to guide rulers and statesmen, reflecting the high political circles in which he moved. governmental Science in General The modern word political derives from the Greek politikos, of, or pertaining to, the polis. (The Greek term polis will be translated here as city-state. It is also translated as city or polis, or simply anglicized as polis. City-states like Athens and Sparta were relatively small and viscid units, in which political, religious, and cultural concerns were intertwined. The extent of their similarity to modern nation-states is controversial. ) Aristotles word for politics is politike, which is short for politike episteme or political science.It belongs to one of the lead main branches of science, which Aristotle distinguishes by their ends or objects. Contemplative science (including physics and metaphysics) is concerned with truth or knowledge for its own sake practical science with good action and productive science with making useful or beautiful. Politics is a practical science, since it is concerned with the noble action or happiness of the citizens (although it resembles a productive science in that it seeks to create, preserve, and reform political systems). Aristotle thus understands politics as a normative or prescriptive discipline rather than as a purely empirical or descriptive inquiry.In the Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle describes his subject matter as political science, which he characterizes as the most authoritative science. It prescribes which sciences are to be studied in the city-state, and the others such as military science, household management, and rhetoric amount under its authority. Since it governs the other practical sciences, their end s serve as means to its end, which is nothing less than the human good. Even if the end is the same for an individual and for a city-state, that of the city-state seems at any rate greater and more complete to dispatch and preserve.For although it is worthy to attain it for only an individual, it is nobler and more divine to do so for a nation or city-state (EN I. 2. 1094b7-10). Aristotles political science encompasses the two fields which modern philosophers distinguish as ethics and political philosophy. Political philosophy in the narrow sense is roughly speaking the subject of his treatise called the Politics. For a further discussion of this topic, see the following supplementary instrument2. Aristotles View of Politics Political science studies the tasks of the politician or statesman (politikos), in much the way that medical science concerns the work of the physician (see Politics IV. 1). It is, in fact, the body of knowledge that such practitioners, if very expert, will a lso wield in pursuing their tasks. The most important task for the politician is, in the role of lawgiver, to frame the appropriate organization for the city-state. This involves enduring laws, customs, and institutions (including a system of moral education) for the citizens.Once the constitution is in place, the politician needs to take the appropriate measures to maintain it, to introduce reforms when he finds them necessary, and to prevent developments which might subvert the political system. This is the province of legislative science, which Aristotle regards as more important than politics as exercised in everyday political activity such as the passing of decrees. Aristotle frequently compares the politician to a craftsman.The analogy is imprecise because politics, in the strict sense of legislative science, is a form of practical knowledge, while a craft like computer architecture or medicine is a form of productive knowledge. However, the comparison is valid to the extent that the politician produces, operates, maintains a legal system according to universal principles (EN VI. 8 and X. 9).In order to appreciate this analogy it is helpful to observe that Aristotle explains the production of an artifact in terms of four causes the material, formal, efficient, and final causes (Phys. II. 3 and Met. A. 2). For example, clay (material cause) is molded into a vase shape (formal cause) by a ceramist (efficient or moving cause) so that it can contain liquid (final cause). One can also explain the existence of the city-state in terms of the four causes. It is a kind of community, that is, a collection of parts having some functions and interests in common. Hence, it is made up of parts, which Aristotle describes in various.